Before I get to the wasps a quick FYI: no redbud seed bruchids (Gibbobruchus mimus) emerged from the collection of several hundred seeds, which is totally expected because the species overwinters as adults (pic). The wasps below are likely parasitoids of the beetle, but I haven’t confirmed that and thus some might be simple seed predators.

The big excitement (for me, at least) was the emergence of what I believe is Horismenus missouriensis (Eulophidae), a species that is known to parasitize the redbud seed bruchid but that I didn’t see in my 2025 census. So it was the species I was hoping to find, plus it’s beautiful. Both photographs are hyperlinked to iNaturalist if you’d like to confirm or correct my identification, which I based in part on photographs in Hansson et al. 2004.

The other mild surprise is that I found zero Heterospilus sp. (Braconidae). The most likely reason is that it’s rare, as it was in the fall. Klingeman and Carrington 2005 observed it emerging from seeds. Here are my photographs from 2025.

Only a small number of Eupelmus pulchriceps (Eupelmidae) emerged. It’s a beautiful wasp so I was hoping to see more of them.

Eurytoma sp. (Eurytomidae) individuals were very common on the trees in the fall and were very well represented among the emergers. The males (left image) have distinctive plumose antennae.

Another common emerger was Dinarmus sp. (Pteromalidae), possibly D. basalis. I think I have correctly identified the sexes (male on left) but I’m not positive. Given how hard small wasps are to identify, I’m not 100% certain these are the same species or even the same genus. As with all the other photographs these are hot-linked to their respective iNaturalist locations, so please weigh in if you have expertise.

Future

Something I’d love to look at someday is whether the redbud bruchid is attacked at the egg stage by fairy wasps (Mymaridae). The eggs are very easy to find on the developing pods and I imagine there is a way to cover the location with a miniaturized cage that could trap the emerging wasp. Here are some photographs of the eggs. Sometimes there is a line of pigment that Santiago-Blay and Turcotte 2024 assert is caused by feeding damage.

1. They kill very, very few mosquitoes. By one count, 0.2% of the insects killed by a bug zapper were mosquitoes. I.e., they make essentially no difference in the number of mosquitoes in your yard. People who insist otherwise are delusional or lying. Companies that claim the devices kill mosquitoes can get sued.
2. They can kill thousands of insects per day that are not mosquitoes. There’s no justification for this senseless slaughter even if you have somebody in your household who doesn’t “like” bugs. It’s also the case that zappers fail to fully kill many of the larger insects such as June beetles, so they are trapped inside dying, which nobody should be OK with. Plus an indirect consequence of removing tens of thousands of insects from your yard is that local birds will have less to feed to their young. And local bats will have less to eat. And you’ll have fewer pollinators flitting around your flower bed. Etc.
3. Causes light pollution. That means you, and your neighbors, don’t get to see as many stars in the night sky.
4. Causes noise pollution. That crackle (20-70 dB) might be hugely satisfying to those believing (falsely) that each sound is a from an exploding mosquito, but neighbors will probably be annoyed. Example 1 (reddit). Example 2 (Facebook). Example 3 (Houzz). Example 4 (Anchorage Daily News). Many homeowners associations (e.g., Estes Park, Fortville, IN) have bans against devices that make loud noises.
5. Mist from exploding insects might contaminate your food when you are eating nearby. Research shows the debris from the explosion can travel up to 2 meters, and germs on the exterior of insects is thrown farther than that contained inside their guts (source). People who have yards filled with dog feces should take note of that finding. Same if you live close to where dead animals are common.
6. Can deliver a painful shock if you stick your finger inside (e.g., like this report). Not usually a problem because of the presence of safety grilles but sometimes those fall off (e.g, Stinger Insect Zappers).
7. Can catch fire and burn your house down. This is not a theoretical risk (Australia incident, Wisconsin incident). One model sold by Lowe’s caused 14 fires in the 1980s.
8. Wastes electricity. It will cost something on the order of $15/year per this video (YouTube) just to keep the bulb going. But energy consumption spikes whenever the zapping takes place so the true cost is higher.
9. They MIGHT confuse fireflies. Artificial light definitely interferes with firefly mating (article in New York Times), but I couldn’t find any research specifically using bug zapper bulbs (335 to 380-nm range). Several papers however suggest that near-ultraviolet light might be perceived by some species (Lall 1981, Carlson and Copeland 1985, Owens et al. 2018, Owens and Lewis 2022). The best support for my concern is from Moubarak and Niven 2026, who speculate that the translucent quality of the pronotal shield of fireflies has evolved to block UV light (presumably for reasons).
10. They MIGHT attract yellow jackets. Again, I haven’t seen any research on this but my concern is based on the observation that yellow jackets forage for dead insects. E.g., all those insects on your car’s grille and windshield are often scavanged by yellow jackets. In general, you don’t want yellow jackets hanging out on your patio.

Do the ones with octenol packets control mosquitoes?

No, there’s zero evidence that the addition of an attractant makes bug zappers an effective mosquito-control device, which is unsurprising given that devices don’t emit carbon dioxide (see Rueda et al. 2001). Here’s what the EPA has to say about the attractant packets (bolding mine):

“The reported results indicate variability, that is, some insect species were repelled, some were attracted, and some were unaffected by octenol. Product label claims state that the octenol makes electronic devices more effective in killing certain mosquitoes and biting flies. The statements do not claim to control mosquitoes, only to make the electronic insect killers more effective.”

It’s very likely that the reason companies include these lures is so that they can use the word “mosquito” on the box but do so without making a claim that device attracts, kills, or control mosquitoes. I.e., it helps fool consumers into believing the product is going to work specifically on mosquitoes while shielding the company from litigation targeting false claims. The packets also provide a way to charge more money for refills.

Why are bug zappers still legal?

Pesticides and pesticidal devices that kill large numbers of non-target organisms generally receive greater scrutiny by state regulatory agencies and the EPA, but bug zappers seem to be given a pass. For example, the EPA normally requires companies to complete a “non-target insect study” but that has been waived. I don’t know exactly why the EPA does this but I’m guessing it’s because bug zappers have been around since before the EPA, and the agency is too busy to deal a device that is hugely popular with Americans.

That said, it doesn’t mean citizens can’t agitate to get them regulated like other pesticidal devices. If you’d like to submit a complaint, here is a listing of state and federal agencies that solicit reports. If you write them, some important facts to mention might be that the bulk of insects killed by bug zappers are likely pollinators (e.g., moths), and that all of the insects killed make it likely that local bird and bat populations are harmed. I.e., bug zappers clearly have negative environmental effects and likely not subtle. In a 1996 paper it was estimated that bug zappers killed over 71 billion insects each year in the United States. That number is likely much higher in 2026.

Resources

• “Do bug zappers work? Yeah—about as well as any other indiscriminate wildlife slaughter” (New York Times)
• “Bug zappers are harmful not helpful” (Donald Lewis)
• “An electric death trap for the fly” (Popular Mechanics)

The trap

The general idea is to put the wine into a container that has small, fly-sized holes, then situate in a nook in your insect hotel. I opted to use 2-oz containers that I had sitting around but several posters on reddit use small mason jars. I then drilled four, 1/8″ holes in the lids, attached segments of cork with a 1 5/8″ screw to either the side of the container or the lid, and then screwed it to the hotel.

Evidence that it works

I set mine up too late in the season to estimate how many Houdini flies can be trapped per day, but I can confirm that some did go inside the traps and drown. Here are two:

Small waterlogged flies are difficult to identify even when you have decent photographs, so I eventually fitted the containers with sticky cards that would immobilize insects before they drowned. Here’s a trap attached via the lid and a Houdini fly that got stuck:

I should emphasize that my traps also caught dozens of small fruit flies that were not Houdini flies. So if you are trying this trap method be cautious in deciding whether it’s actually working or whether it’s just attracting small flies that happen to like red wine. I encourage everyone to use sticky cards and to submit photographs for ID confirmation to either BugGuide (North America only) or iNaturalist. If you opt for the latter you’ll likely get input from me within 24 hours (I’ve ID’d 200 Houdini flies already).

Is it safe for bees?

The holes are too small for many mason bee species but there are plenty of solitary bees that could fit into 1/8″ holes if they wanted to try. So far, however, none has become stuck in any of my nine traps. Some of the bees even use them as landing platforms because the sun hits them in the afternoon.

Design tips

Some thoughts that I’ll update as I continue with testing.

• Opt for clear-sided containers so you have a better view of what is inside.
• I’m now using a slightly smaller drill bit because 1/8″ allows rather big flies to enter.
• Reddit user atrailofdisasters uses a red-pepper shaker, a solution that might work well for those who don’t have a drill and collection of small bits.

What wines work best?

Per reddit, the person who came up with the trap idea, Nicole Kenney, of Portland, Oregon, tested different wines for several years and decided that red wine, especially Argentinian malbec, is best. I have no idea how she did the tests but I’ll link to more information when I can find it. I’ve only tried malbec in mine but will do some comparisons next year during peak Houdini-fly season. Malbec is an old grape grown around the world but apparently thrives in Argentina and much of the acreage is in the mountains. It would be very interesting to know exactly which component is attracting the Houdini flies, of course.

Why does it work?

Houdini flies are members of the vinegar fly family (Drosophilidae) and are known to like fermenting fruit juice (source) so it’s not a surprise they are attracted to wine. And all animals are lazy so if there is food near where females are busy ovipositing, they will happily take a break to a have a drink.

More information

If you’d like to see photographs of Houdini flies I have about 20 on iNaturalist.

Please also see my blog post, “Houdini fly alert for owners of insect hotels.”

Bees

The most common mason bee this year was Osmia georgica, a native that can be recognized by its bright orange frass and circular, green, felt-like plugs that separate the cocoons inside the nesting tunnel. Here’s an adult if you’re curious what they look like.

There was also a mystery bee that is currently in a vial and will hopefully emerge sometime this spring. It’s unlike anything I’ve found before but somewhat resembles the cocoon of a resin bee. But much smaller than the cocoon of a sculptured resin bee (pic) that I often find in my hotels; this species is non-native and kind of a bully toward native species so they are unwelcome visitors.

Wasps

These are cocoons of Trypoxylon collinum, a spider-provisioning wasp (pic of adults) that I also get every year, especially in the front yard (maybe they like morning sun?).

I also got a few grass-carrying wasp pupae but I forgot to take any closeups (here’s one from past). For some reason the females prefer to nest in observational panel. The tunnels are full of grass and dead crickets but the larvae are there.

As always, some of the mason bee cells were filled with adult, dead Monodontomerus sp., a parasitoid. I can easily tell they are inside because they have partially chewed exit holes through the straw. When you unwrap the straw the adults are still inside the bee cocoon, apparently unable to exit because the straw is wedged into the drilled hole tightly. In the real world the wasps would chew through the stem and be able to escape. I have pics of larvae, trapped adults, and a female).

Flies

I’m not sure of the ID, but I found small dipterous (I think) pupae scattered around the observation window. Given their small size and the fact that grass-carrying wasps were the only residents, I’m wondering whether they might be scuttle flies, which are known to be parasites. E.g., Megaselia aletia (Medler 1965). I’ve saved the pupae and will attempt to get photographs of the adults.

Several of the mason bee cells were infested with the kleptoparasitic, non-native Houdini flies (Cacoxenus indagator, adult). I usually kill them but this batch is bound for a researcher who needs them.

Bugs

As in most years, the observation panel had several Dufouriellus ater individuals, members of the minute pirate bug family (Anthocoridae). I can confirm that they are minute but also that they rarely sit still and are thus a royal pain to photograph. The nymphs are bright red and even smaller.

Beetles

These two larvae are dermestids and were found inside mason bee nests where they had eaten several of the pupae. They are unwelcome residents and are an important reason why it’s important to clean insect hotels.

Spiders

There was a nest of spiderling jumping spiders in the observation window and they were unspeakably cute, with a thorax that looked liked hammered copper. Note that I typically relocate spiders when I find them on the hotel grounds during the season. For reasons.

Cleaning and restocking

In case of interest, all the pupae go into containers and placed in protected locations outside so that when they emerge in late March they can go on to live their lives. If I’m outside I’ll stop by the location multiple times per day to look for emergers to photograph.

I then bake the wood blocks to kill any remnant dermestid larvae, pollen mites, and pathogens that might be lurking inside. I also sweep out the house structure and drench it with a bleach solution. After everything is dry I’ll restock the house with blocks and stems.

Here’s an action shot of me making new stems sections with a cut-off blade attached to a Dremel.

If you’re envious, here’s where to buy an insect hotel. Or you can build your own. For help identifying a resident, please browse the “Bee and Wasp Hotels” project on iNaturalist. Send me a message if you have questions.

Eupelmus pulchriceps (Eupelmidae)

I’m starting with this species because it’s the only one I’ve photographed that is currently identified beyond genus on iNaturalist. Here’s the female:

And here, possibly, is the male:

I think this a known parasitoid of the redbud bruchid but it took some digging to figure it out. Kingsolver 2004 lists E. cyaniceps as a parasite but Gibson 2001 asserts, “… all literature recording E. cyaniceps from various Bruchidae appear to be misidentifications of E. cushmani.” And per iNaturalists taxonomy page, Eupelmus cushmani is now known as Eupelmus pulchriceps. That said, BugGuide seems to have a listing for Eupelmus cushmanii but not Eupelmus pulchriceps. Additionally, the 2021 “Checklist of Chalcidoidea and Mymarommatoidea (Hymenoptera) of Canada, Alaska and Greenland” (Huber et al. 2021) contains both species, as does the “Bees and wasps of Central America Extended.” I’m a bit confused and thus I likely made a mistake somewhere.

As an aside, the species has recently been found in the Galapagos Islands (Camacho-Erazo et al. 2024, Carmargo-Martinez et al. 2024). Its host range is quite impressive.

Heterospilus sp.

Kingsolver 2004 mentions that both Heterospilus bruchi and H. prosopidis can be found parasitizing redbud bruchids, so my specimens could one of those (or both), but perhaps even something else in the genus. My ID is because the wasp strongly resembles an observation on BugGuide that is identified as Heterospilus sp.

And here’s the male, which I admit assumes they are the same species. I don’t have any photographs of this species arriving at pods still attached to the tree.

Eurytoma sp.

Klingeman and Carrington 2005 list two unidentified Eurytomidae associated with redbud trees that have bruchid infestations, so this was also not an unexpected find.

A male (below) was one of several that emerged from redbud seed pods. As with the other finds, I’m tentatively assuming that the male/female pairs are the same species.

Dinarmus sp. (Pteromalidae)

Per a suggestion on iNaturalist, this might be in the genus Dinarmus. In (weak) support of that, it does appear similar to observations of that genus on BugGuide and iNaturalist. If the genus is correct, it might possibly be Dinarmus basilis, a species that Klingeman and Carrington 2005 found emerging from eastern redbud seeds in Tennessee. There’s an illustration of a female on page 646 of Sureshan and Narendran 2001, however, that doesn’t look like mine in profile, so I’m hesitant. Similarly, figures 2 and 3 of Pimentel et al. 2024 look much bluer than mine. I also think my specimens have too many antennal segments (9?). Dinarmus basilis is apparently introduced in North America and is popular in IPM. The lectotype (a male from Egypt) is in Florence under the basionym of Entedon basalis (Bouček 1974).

More wasps to come?

I’d be very surprised if my current gallery of wasps is complete, so I’m monitoring several thousand seed pods (below photograph) to see who else might emerge in the months to come. There are two wasps that are mentioned in the literature and that I’m hoping to find. The first is Horismenus missouriensis (Eulophidae; bright metallic green with a “longitudinal median groove on the scutellum“; see fig. 1), mentioned by Burke 1971. And Stenocorse bruchivora (Doryctinae; fig 9b, fig 7) is mentioned by Cushman 2011. Neither BugGuide nor iNaturalist has photographs of these species.

I’m especially interested in finding hyperparasites of some of the wasps mentioned above. And on my to-do list in 2026 is to collect several hundred redbud pods in the spring to see whether any of the redbud bruchid eggs harbor parasites such as fairy wasps (Mymaridae).

Redbud seed bruchid

In case you want to see what the beetle looks like, here’s an adult:

Walnut husk maggots

Almost all of them were filled with fly larvae that are most likely Rhagoletis suavis (Tephritidae). If you collect walnuts for their nutmeat, these are unwanted residents because their activity can make the husks difficult to remove, stain the shell, and even cause the kernel to discolor, become bitter, and shrivel. Commercial walnut groves Juglans regia will even treat spray insecticide to minimize their presence. Below is a typical scene showing a healthy population of the larvae:

And here’s a close-up. It’s interesting that the larvae seem to accumulate dark pigment in each segment. I’m assuming it’s juglone, also known as Natural Brown 7. The presence is probably unavoidable given what it is eating but I wonder whether it confers any protection against predators. It’s certainly allelopathic, antifungal, and can kill fish.

Here’s an adult that I found a few years ago.

There are several species of tephritids that utilize walnuts. Rhagoletis suavis is restricted to the eastern half of North America (iNaturalist distribution map), with the western-most observation being in Colorado. The western species, Rhagoletis completa (BugGuide pics; iNaturalist map), seems to be expanding its range, arriving in Jonesboro, Arkansas in 2007. Another western species, Rhagoletis juglandis (BugGuide pics; iNaturalist map), occurs in Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Mexico, and apparently British Columbia. If you live in an area with more than one of these species, you’d need to rear larvae to adulthood to get an identification (see fig. 8 here for wing pattern differences). Alternatively, you can try to use the key to larvae in Steyskal 1973.

Fungus gnat

This fly emerged from a pile of rotting walnuts that I’d covered with fine netting to catch whatever hatched when I wasn’t looking. I think it is Leia bivittata (Mycetophilidae). Per Weiss 1919 the larvae move around in a bag of mucous. It’s the only one that appeared. There is nothing in the literature that suggests they eat the fungi in rotting walnuts, so I don’t know how common they are in the fruit.

Vinegar flies

I found two species of vinegar flies (Drosophilidae) hanging out on rotting husks, Drosophila repleta and Drosophila tripunctata, the latter in large numbers. Per Buchner and Symmes 2014, Drosophila are attracted to the rotting flesh caused by Rhagoletis infestation. What’s notable to me is that larvae can tolerate the juglone and related compounds.

Beetles

This scooped scarab (Onthophagus hecate) was wedged inside a crevice in a walnut husk. They eat fungi but will also show up to eat dead animals.

I also found four different kinds of staphylinids. I’ve only been able to identify one, Belonuchus rufipennis, but will update this post if and when an expert on iNaturalist sees them (so probably at least a decade). I would love to know what they are eating. There are certainly plenty of fly larvae present but I don’t have any confirmation that those are their targets.

Mites

The rotting walnuts were crawling with mites, often numbering in the dozens. These are extremely small and fast moving so I’m not sure how many different kinds are present. I think there are at least two species, both in the order Mesostigmata. The first image might be in the suborder Gamasina, and possibly in the genus Lasioseius. I have no idea what they are eating but some mesostigs are omnivorous.

Parasitic wasps

Although I didn’t find them inside the walnuts, this wasp in the genus Coptera (Diapriidae) ended up in a yellow pan trap set up near a tray of Rhagoletis suava puparia that I situated atop a bin of several dozen walnuts. Here’s a really low-res video of it walking around on the tray after I rescued it from the pan trap. There was a second individual walking on the tray at the same time, so I don’t think the pan-trap individual was just a rando Coptera attracted to yellow. These wasps apparently dig down into the soil to find pupae. Some articles say they’ll drag the pupae to the surface prior to ovipositing into them.

Members of this genus are rarely observed and are difficult to tell apart, but based on proximity to walnuts it is likely Coptera pomonellae, the only species that arrived at pan traps set up under walnut trees in Iowa (two locations) and Indiana in Forbes et al. 2012.

Because I have trays of bait pupae, I’m also monitoring for but haven’t yet seen:

1. Diachasmimorpha mellea (Braconidae), a wasp that is reported to parasitize Rhagoletis suavis (Krombein and Burks 1967, Wharton and Marsh 1978).
2. Aphaereta pallipes (Braconidae), a pupal parasite of Rhagoletis suavis that was documented in Amherst, MA (Babb 1902). Per Joseph Fortier, it’s been reared from 15 dipteran families. The two observations on iNaturalist emerged from Chirosia gleniensis and Fannia canicularis.
3. Phygadeuon sp. (Ichneumonidae), a species that attacks pupae of (the closely-related) Rhagoletis juglandis (Andrew Forbes, pers. comm.). I’m not sure whether Phygadeuon attacks Rhagoletis suavis, but there are observations in the eastern USA.
4. Aganaspis alujai (Figitidae), a parthenogenic wasp that attacks Rhagoletis completa in Mexico (Ovruski et al. 2007, Takata et al. 2025). I have no idea whether there’s a member of the genus in Pennsylvania, so this is another unlikely arrival.
5. Tetrastichus giffardianus (Eulophidae) “may parasitize Rhagoletis suavis completa CRESSON” (Narayanan and Chawla 1962, citing Marlatt 1933, which I cannot locate). Marlatt was writing in a USDA publication so this relates to the United States. But host species is now Rhagoletis completa, so this is probably a western wasp (confirmed: just California).

Absent from the list are hyperparasitoids, which is kind of annoying because I really like them. I will certainly be on the lookout for them, of course. I’ve also read that a fairy wasp attacks the Rhagoletis eggs, and that would also be fun to find.

I’ll post an update in August 2026 with details on what emerges from the several hundred Rhagoletis suava pupae I have. Hopefully there will be at least some Coptera in the mix, and with some luck I’ll get photographs of both sexes. I’m also very curious what types of wasps might seek out Rhagoletis completa that are on eastern black walnuts planted in the western USA, but that hinges on my sister reading this post and setting up some trays in a similar way (simple instructions are in next section). The first record of Rhagoletis completa in Oregon was in 1963 (Berlocher 1984).

Below is a photograph of the trays of pupae. The chair is so I can drink my coffee while scanning for wasps.

Collecting fly puparia

If anyone is curious how I’m getting puparia, I placed infested walnuts in trays filled with sand and vermiculate, and the larvae tunnel down into the medium to pupate. The plexiglass is to keep the rain from flooding the containers, and the whole operation is conducted inside a screened enclosure that keeps the squirrels from pilfering the walnuts. This is making the squirrels angry.

The larvae eventually burrow into the medium to form puparia, but sometimes they simply pupated underneath a walnut (e.g., as in photo below). At some point I’ll sift the media to collect puparia so that I can more closely monitor them. I’m curious whether they can be candled under a microscope to spy on the residents.

Here’s a sampling of the puparia along with some third-instar larvae. I suspect I have 500 or so puparia in the trays. Some pupae apparently stay dormant for two years (Stirret 1936).

Next year I’ll likely repeat all of the above but start monitoring for Coptera much earlier.

Bacterial soft rot is primarily caused by Pectobacterium carotovorum (aka Erwinia carotovora).

Bacterial ring rot is caused by Clavibacter sepedonicus (formerly called Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus). Note that the potato has fallen off its attachment point higher up in the coffin.

Blackleg is caused by Pectobacterium atrosepticum.

Fusarium dry rot is caused by several species of Fusarium, of course. But also by Gibberella pulicaris, which was formerly in the genus, I gather).

Skin spot is caused by the fungus, Polyscytalum pustulans.

Potato wart is caused by the chytrid fungus, Synchytrium endobioticum. Lesions make the potatoes unmarketable, which is bad, but also result in fields being quarantined and potentially never farmed again.

Many types of slugs eat potatoes.

The potato-rot nematode is Ditylenchus destructor. As in several other coffins, the potato seems to have become unglued.

White grubs are the larvae of scarab beetles (Scarabidae) in the genus Phyllophaga (May beetles, June bugs, … and sometimes even July beetles). Fun fact: they crawl on their backs.

Wireworms are the larvae of click beetles (Elateridae).

Potato scab is caused by the potato scab gnat (Pnyxia scabiei), a member of the Sciaridae. Fun fact: the females are wingless (and have no halteres!)

The flea beetle most associated with potato is Epitrix cucumeris.

The most common millipede in potato fields is the spotted snake millipede (Blaniulus guttulatus).

Blackheart is not a disease but rather a physiological response to low oxygen during growth or storage. High temperatures during transport and storage are the main culprits. Blossom-end rot is caused by the same conditions.

In case you are curious, the coffins were designed by Meredith and Tom Hughes for the “The Amazing Potato” exhibit (1991-1994) at Canada’s Museum of Science and Technology in Ottawa. There are, apparently, undisplayed coffins because the O’Leary building was too small to house them all.

But you should definitely visit. You can pose in front of the 14-foot potato out front, stroll through the world’s largest exhibit of potato-related farm machinery, shop for trinkets such as squishy stress potatoes, and dine in the Potato Country Kitchen (don’t skip the seaweed pie made with Chondrus crispus, a red alga; it’s a recipe from Ireland). It’s open from May 12 to October 10, but always double check on dates because these seem flexible on the island.

Crustaceans

Atlantic rock crab (Cancer irroratus). It looked sad. Also of minor note: all the tiny little shells in the sand.

Northern acorn barnacles (Semibalanus balanoides) growing on a snail. I wonder how they fare compared to ones that develop on rocks.

Mollusks

As a segue, here are some common periwinkles (Littorina littorea) inside empty barnacle shells. I wonder how often the snails become trapped inside after they add whorls to their shells.

PEI is famous for its Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) so it was no surprise they were growing everywhere. That said, I was surprised. Trillions of them, I suspect, if you count all the babies (spats). Females are said to produce 100 million eggs when they spawn, which is rather impressive.

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) were also present in uncountable numbers. This patch seemed to have very prominent growth rings and I wonder whether the farmed ones are smoother. Could just be my imagination, of course.

Northern horse mussel (Modiolus modiolus). These are very large but the word on the street is that they are not good for eating. The alga is Fucus serratus (saw wrack).

Common Atlantic slippersnails (Crepidula fornicata) on the inside of some shell. Unfortunately there’s nothing for scale so you can’t tell how tiny and adorable these are. Approximately the size of a corn kernel.

Three-lined mudsnail (Ilyanassa trivittata). A scavenger, but apparently has a taste for the egg-case of northern moonsnails (below).

Northern moonsnail (Euspira heros). This is a snail of unusual size (SOUS) and uses a mechanical drill and acid to bore into clams and other snails, including other moonsnails. But they also eat algae, as shown by carbon isotope analysis (source). This video is a short and entertaining primer on how they do it. The resulting hole is always countersunk.

Atlantic jacknife (Ensis leei). Despite persistent effort I could not locate a restaurant on Prince Edward Island that served razor clams. Likely because I went in October. I will need to go back.

Tunicates

Chain (or violet) tunicate (Botrylloides violaceus). This invasive is loathed by oyster and mussels farmers on the island because it fouls cages, ropes, boats, etc., all of which need to be blasted clean with high-pressure hoses. And if you don’t, the combined weight of the tunicate is enough to break the mussels’ attachments to the rope that suspends them in the water. They also compete for food. And it gets worse because this is just one of four invasive tunicates in the area. But they are pretty!

Plants

Gutweed (Ulva intestinalis). I didn’t take a close-up but I read that the fronds have hollow parts that trap oxygen and allow it to float when the tide comes back in. Although it’s very green, the reddish rock and combover reminded me of somebody. That’s why I took this photo.

Mermaid’s tresses (Chorda filum) attached to a rock. Fronds can get as long as a school bus. It’s a brown alga.

Furcellaria lumbricalis. This is a red alga and the only member of the genus. Apparently loaded with carrageenan. But apparently not as easy to harvest as giant Irish moss (an asexual, hexaploid variant of Chondrus crispus), a red alga that used to be harvested with horses on Prince Edward Island before the population crashed (invasive green crabs and potatoes are on shortlist of culprits). Even the Irish Moss Interpretative Centre has closed.

Sea wrack (Fucus serratus). Apparently quite tasty, and it’s an invasive so you should.

Dead man’s fingers (Codium fragile), another invasive. Often called oyster thief because it attaches to farmed bivalves, which then get washed away by strong waves. Per one source it causes millions of (CAD) dollars of losses every year.

New York aster (Symphyotrichum novi-belgii). This wasn’t in the intertidal but it was close enough so I wanted to include. I’m a sucker for compact plants that are just barely hanging on.

Insects

Black kelp fly (Coelopa frigida). There were millions of these but it still took probably 100 tries before I could get a decent image. Small, frenetic, and easily spooked. And only 126 observations on iNaturalist for North America, as a likely result. I would like to go back with my real camera and flash setup. Larvae are said to eat the bacteria that grow on decomposing seaweed.

Telmatogeton japonicus. These were even harder than kelp flies to photograph, and that’s my excuse for it being out of focus. And for the sake of full disclosure I’m not positive about the identification. If confirmed, my iNaturalist observation would be the first for Prince Edward Island.

Peryphus sp. This is a subgenus of Bembidion, my father’s favorite carabid. As he often complained, they are really fast and hard to capture. And hard to identify which is probably why my dad liked them.

Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus). This is an invasive agricultural pest and I was surprised to see it on the beach. But it turns out that it has a rather wide host range so I guess not unusual.

For such a beautiful and large wasp I thought somebody on iNaturalist would offer up an identification. After almost a year, nothing. I’m guessing that it was going after some sort of cavity-nesting bee that uses beetle bore holes in driftwood as nests. All the logs had plugs like this so some bee is really utilizing the wood.

Spiders

Thin-legged wolf spider (Pardosa sp.) that was under a rock. I’d wager that it was mainly eating kelp flies. Species identification is only possible with dissection.

Trochosa sp. that has recently molted. This also can’t be taken to species level because the patterns aren’t visible until after the new exoskeleton ages a bit.

Mysteries

I’m assuming this is some sort of venting product made by a sand-dwelling organism such as a clam, worm, or crab. Here’s the iNaturalist observation if you’d like to weigh in.

This sort of looks like a sponge (e.g., Clionaidae, Halichondriidae) but I truly have no idea. Definitely creepy, and I wonder whether those barnacles were victims of something slow moving. Here’s my iNaturalist observation if you can help.

I think this might be some sort of fungus (e.g., Collemopsidium halodytes) or a lichen. It was especially common in depressions in rocks where water might pool. More ideas are on my iNaturalist observation. I would be grateful for suggestions.

As always, if you see a mistake please let me know.

In case you’re a camera nerd, all photographs were taken with an OM TG-7 that I purchased for the trip. It’s waterproof, shoots RAW, does focus-stacking (poorly), and weighs a lot less than the Canon DSLR that I usually lug around with me.

This is Loxocera cylindrica (Psilidae). They puncture and hoover up fluids from leaves, resulting in patches of brown discoloration that give the family its common name (rust flies). Larvae mature inside stems of inland sedge (Carex interior), which tend to grow around calcareous swamps and marshes.

This was so small I assumed it was a spider with just six legs. Eventually figured out it was a gall fly (Cecidomyiidae) when I loaded the photographs onto my computer. It was hanging on spider silk, a behavior that is apparently quite common in the family.

And one more fly: Limonia indigena. BugGuide, my go-to source for obscure facts, says that members of the genus spend their youth in gelatinous tubes on moist surfaces that harbor algae.

This is a Hart’s jumping spider (Tutelina harti) that was thinking about leaping onto my camera. I’ve always wondered whether spiders see the lens and assume it’s an eye. I love the white stripe below the eyes.

Caddo agilis, a diminutive, predaceous harvestman. I first encountered this several years on the exact same patch of moss. The reason why they are assumed to be hunters is partly because they have such big eyes. They are also are incredibly fast runners. The stuff of nightmares, to be honest.

Shaler’s Fabiola moth (Fabiola shaleriella). This is another repeat species for the location, and I always seem to find them on the same stretch of rock. Like most small moths people have no idea what the larvae eat. I’m wondering whether it might use lichen.

This is some sort of bristletail, wingless insects that move like predators but apparently eat lichen. The small photograph doesn’t do justice to the scales and eyes so below is a close-up.

I’m hoping that the eyes can help with identification but so far nobody has weighed in on iNaturalist. They are apparently very hard to narrow down.

This is a larva of Feralia jocosa (Noctuidae), which apparently goes by the common names “the joker” and “jocose sallow.” It’s munching on eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Adults are gorgeous but I’m not sure what is so funny about them. Probably an inside joke.

As in many parts of North America the eastern hemlocks at Lake Mohonk are getting hammered by the invasive hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). There were no signs of the beetles (three different species) and silver flies (two Leucotaraxis spp.) that are known to attack them.

The spongy moths (Lymantria dispar) were everywhere this year and seem happy eating everything, even toxic mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) that deer won’t touch.

I’m not exactly sure what this tiny mushroom is, but possibly a moss bell (Galerina hypnorum). If genus is correct then very likely highly poisonous, thanks to amatoxins, the same compounds that are in death caps (Amanita phalloides).

Finally, below are some scenes from around the hotel. It’s such a beautiful place. Do not go if you’re trying to lose weight.

If you want to see more photographs of Mohonk Mountain House please check out my gallery on Smugmug.

The claim

Tougher Than Tom asserts that female mosquitoes are attracted to the containers, and then into the holes, by the carbon dioxide produced by fermentation of sugar by yeast as well as by the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and citric acid. Then they drown, speeded by the active ingredient sodium lauryl sulfate, a surfactant. The company says the four-trap kit will make a 1-acre yard “mosquito-free” for 30 days.

Test results: zero mosquitoes were trapped

I took photographs of four traps every several days as a way to record what types of insects were being killed. By far the most common were flies (fruit flies, blow flies, picture-winged flies, etc.), wasps (yellowjackets and hornets), earwigs, beetles, and bumblebees. After about 20 days the stench was enough to make me gag whenever I got close. At no point during my inspections did I notice any mosquitoes either inside or near the containers.

Test results: flies deposited thousands of eggs

After several weeks, the fluid was full of fly larvae. Some were humpbacked flies (Phoridae):

The containers also contained larvae that I eventually identified as Coboldia fuscipes, a type of minute scavenger fly (Scatopsidae). Here are photographs of the larval, pupal, and adult stages.

Why don’t they attract or kill mosquitoes?

Given the very small size of the ingredient packet, not enough carbon dioxide would be produced to attract mosquitoes. To produce the required amount one would need several pounds of sugar. Moreover, traps are not generating heat or emitting certain odors, cues that mosquitoes use to find hosts.

But don’t the ads prove that they work?

Many of Tougher Than Tom’s ads assert that the dead insects inside the traps are mostly mosquitoes. However, when you zoom in on a container it is apparent that the traps contain fruit flies, bottle flies, wasps, and beetles. I have not been able to locate a mosquito inside any of the traps displayed online.

Another tactic is to show images of traps that have been manipulated to include mosquitoes. For example, the image below has mosquitoes that were copied and pasted from a photograph taken in a German laboratory.

A more recent development is to show AI-generated videos that depict mosquitoes trying to get into the holes. Or dozens of mosquitoes trapped and drowning. It should be emphasized that if the traps were capable of attracting mosquitoes, the company would simply use real videos. Here’s an example ad (on Facebook). Here’s a screenshot:

Tougher Than Tom also uses “user-generated content” (UGC) to push the Mosquito TNT on TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube. These people invariably say the product is effective even though it appears they have set them up only moments before and thus would be unable to assess whether population levels have dropped over time. The UGC ads seem to be following a script supplied by Tougher Than Tom that often includes how safe the ingredients are, how yards become mosquito-free, and how traps eliminate worries over mosquito-borne diseases (all claims that violate FIFRA). None shows mosquitoes inside a Mosquito TNT. The UGCs rarely disclose a financial relationship with the company even though that is required by the FTC.

Sale-price fraud

Tougher Than Tom also deceives users about the price of the Mosquito TNT by using strike-through pricing, showing the “sale” price relative to a putative regular price that is there just to make you think you’re getting a great deal. And the discount is “always just about to expire, so act now!” Strike-through pricing is illegal at the federal and state level.