Click through to listen to the podcast episode featuring Dr. Ira Leifer.
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The critical AMOG Surveyor flaw was its inability to collect data on dirt roads that require 4WD as well as space and power constraints. Thus, in 2020 BRI embarked on the development of SIS (Standard Instrumentation Suite) designed for deployment in the bed of a 4-WD pickup (Chevy Colorado) – TMOG Surveyor. The design emphasized flexibility to allow deployment on a range of platforms, including marine vessels for offshore surveys, truck deployment for surveys on paved and unpaved roads, and trailers for long term monitoring. SIS analyzers can be swapped to meet mission-specific needs. In addition, SIS supports targeted sampling (up to 48 sample cans) with targeting selected based on real-time data visualization for subsequent laboratory analysis by the Blake Lab at UC Irvine. The Blake lab analyzes for 70 or more different trace gases with detection concentration limits of a few parts per trillion.
Measuring atmospheric trace gas concentrations with SIS
SIS trace gas analyzers measure 14 gases: methane (CH4 and a carbon-13 isotope of methane 13CH4), ethane (C2H6), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), water vapor (H2O), ammonia (NH3), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxides (NOX, NO, NO2), nitrogen dioxide (N2O) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). SIS measures by Cavity Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy (CEAS), fluorescence, and absorbance analyzers. This wide range of trace gases that SIS measures provides a comprehensive view of air quality. These gases are of importance to many environmental, industrial, and atmospheric chemistry processes, including quantification of emissions (see table below). Many of these gases interact with one another as well as other (unmeasured) trace gases leading to reaction products, some of which have greater health implications than the original trace gases.
Table of gases measured by SIS and which important processes/events they’re involved in. An “X” indicates the involvement of that gas.
Analyzers that are subject to vibration noise (ThermoFisher Scientific analyzers) are mounted in an air suspension framework. This greatly reduces noise at faster rates.
Each analyzer pulls sample air through heated sample lines from the front of TMOG at a height of 3.5 m above ground through a Teflon-lined, rain-shielded inlet, except for the NH3 analyzer. Heating is only used when there is a risk of rain or fog to prevent condensation in the sample lines. NH3 arrives from a separate much shorter, ½” diameter PFA Teflon line. Sample lines are heated (except NH3) and insulated to prevent condensation of the air being collected. On SIS-Boat, the sample inlets are mounted on the same tower as the anemometer at ~5-m above the sea surface. Targeted sampling air is pulled from the same inlet as the analyzers and then pumped to the canister pack. Air flows continuously through the canister pack, flushing the lines. A canister sample is collected by closing the flow line and slowly opening one evacuated canister, pressuring it to 1 b
SIS is customized to improve the measurement of each analyzer. For example, ammonia can be tricky to measure since it’s a sticky gas, so its sample line is shorter than the rest to allow for an accurate concentration reading, its tube isn’t heated to avoid conversion of ammonium nitrate aerosol. Several analyzers also have bypass flows to shorten the transit time and mixing in the sample lines. SIS also uses a high flow vacuum pump to draw air into the CH4 FGGA and NH3 analyzer at a fast rate. The methane isotope analyzer (CH4, 13CH4, C2H6, and CO2) also has its own external pump, and is connected to the main vacuum pump bypass line. Pumps are mounted in a vacuum compartment that is insulated from the rest of the SIS cube.
Meteorology Measurements
SIS meteorology measurements include high accuracy pressure, temperature, and humidity as well as 3D winds. To measure wind, a 3D sonic anemometer is mounted on a vertical pole attached to the front of a horizontal truss that extends forward on TMOG’s roof rack. A decision was made not to mount the anemometer off the TMOG bumper due to safety concerns – in an car accident, a bumper anemometer pole could become a javelin towards the cab. The anemometer is mounted on a 10-m tower on SIS-BOAT. Dual GPS’s keep track of SIS’s location and allow conversion of measured winds into real winds by subtracting SIS velocity and provided redundancy.
Unique radiation measurement
Mobile geiger counter mapping by SISTER can study sources including from near surface rocks, including from radon, and from other geological sources. A recent study from fixed stations showed that hydrocarbon production which lifts geo-fluids to the surface led to higher radiation levels downwind. In addition, it is possible that natural seepage along fracture may transport radon to the surface faster, leading to higher radiation levels.
Aerosol measurements
SIS also focuses on the generation and evolution of aerosols and their size distribution. Aerosols have significant health concerns particularly smaller than 1.0 micrometer as they penetrate deep into the lungs and are not readily cleared by the lungs natural defense mechanisms. These defenses are effective at trapping aerosols larger than 5.0 micrometer in the lining-fluid of the lungs airways.
Diagram of how the aerosol size analyzer collects sample air. The inlet tube’s front edge is knife edged to avoid altering the aerosol transport and potential bias against smaller particles. The inlet cap is PM-10 rated to preserve large aerosols while blocking rain and insects.
Ultrafine aerosols are formed by bi-directional reactions between NH3 with NO2 and SO2 to form ammonium aerosol particles. Large volatile organic hydrocarbons can deposit onto these aerosols and also penetrate deep into the lungs. SIS also measures aerosol size spectra, allowing the characterization of the downwind development of aerosol sizes. In addition, vertical aerosol profiles up to 8,000 m are collected by a ceilometer, which uses back-scattered laser light to derive the aerosol optical depth profile. Combining the size and profile measurements allows derivation of the total aerosol load in a plume or the mixed layer. The aerosol size analyzer includes a filter, which can be swapped and stored for later chemical and mass analysis to derive aerosol density and toxicity.
The aerosol analyzer draws sample air through an inlet tubing centered in a drawdown tube. A variable speed drawdown pump is used to bring air down at the same speed as the aerosol size analyzer pump pulls air in. A portable anemometer is used to measure the airflow speed in the drawdown tube to match the airflow speed in the inlet tube of the aerosol analyzer.
SIS Power
SIS produces medical grade power from an inverter generator and a dual conversion UPS as well as linear power supplies for analyzers and sensors. Non-science infrastructure, such as vacuum pumps and air conditioners are powered directly from the generator, albeit with timer relays for high consumption items to simultaneously turn on. The generator is mounted on the tailgate (when on TMOG) with its exhaust directed into a duct that also directs the truck’s exhaust to the back edge of the tailgate.To maintain SIS analyzers at a stable temperatures – a major source of noise and bias – SIS also includes a 13,500 btu roof air conditioning and a number of fans to move cool air around the cube. Supplementary fans have been added to ThermoFischer analyzers to increase airflow into the analyzers interiors.
Data Communication & Real-time visualization
A portable computer continuously integrates SIS analyzer data streams for archiving in an asynchronous ASCII tag stream and for real-time visualization in Google Earth using custom code written in MATLAB. Although far larger, ASCII tag streams (based on GPS), provide significant ability to recover if the data file is corrupted.
Data are transferred by several serial ethernet servers which also buffer data as needed and are connected with the portable by an ethernet switch. The ethernet switches allow for multiple computers to access the analyzer data streams. A GPS time server is connected to the ethernet switch, which in combination with serial server buffering allows analyzer sample time to be fixed to a few milliseconds. A low bandwidth of the Google Earth visualization can be mirrored to online servers for remote observers to monitor data including by other vehicles in the field. Real-time visualization allows for survey re-direction and route selection to improve science outcomes. Real-time visualization also enables targeted sample collection. The real-time visualization also includes analyzer temperature and cell pressure and for some analyzers flow rates to monitor analyzer health.
*AMOG References:
Leifer et al., 2020
Leifer et al., 2020a
Leifer et al., 2019a
Leifer et al., 2019
Leifer et al., 2018
Leifer et al., 2018b
Leifer et al., 2016
Leifer et al., 2016b
Leifer et al., 2014
© 2021 Bubbleology Research International. All rights reserved.
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Idling freighters waiting offshore the Ports. Photo by Ira Leifer on a data collection survey from the Navy Pier.
The nation’s busiest ports are the Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles (hereafter the “Ports”). These Ports handle an incredible 9-million twenty-foot shipping containers annually, as well as hosting major refineries and other large industries. The Ports’ importance is highlighted by the estimated 193,00 jobs they support – just in the Los Angeles and Long Beach areas (2.9 million across the US).
These myriad sources create pollution that drifts into downwind communities. The vast majority of shipping containers are transported by Heavy-Duty Diesel Trucks that fill the freeways (notably the I-710) that connect the Ports with the national interstate highway system, with trains carrying the remainder. Idling freighters waiting to enter the Ports also emit pollutants including PM2.5, and NOX (nitrogen oxides). In normal times, trucks form an unending convoy stretching for miles on the I-710 artery, a linear source of pollution that drifts into the downwind, dense, neighborhoods of north and south Long Beach. The major health concern is the diesel particulate matter that these trucks emit – often referenced as PM2.5 – the number of aerosols smaller than 2.5 µm. PM2.5 has been estimated to account for 70% of the cancer risk (by air pollutants) in Southern California. As such, health problems manifest among the people who live close to freeways, including those of the Ports.
Aerial view of the Port of Long Beach.
The COVID-19 crisis provides a unique opportunity for improving our understanding of the relationship between air quality and health as the stay-at-home orders dramatically slowed business, traffic, and thus, activity at the Ports. Normally, the Ports are a beehive of activity day and night with never a break. Pilot surveys showed a drastic decrease in pollution at the Ports. The findings were amazing; for example, NOX was 300 ppb last summer, but was 30 ppb this May, at the height of the COVID-19 shutdown. The proposed study will map out the health improvements in the Port’s downwind communities from the cleaner air during the many months of the COVID-19 slowdown. The proposed study hypothesizes that these effects are stronger for communities downwind of the I-710 than those downwind of both the I-710 and the refineries.
Phillips 66 refinery through TMOG’s window, east of the Port of Los Angeles.
There are a number of major refineries that produce fuels (blends) for California and other uses in the Port area. These refineries process crude oil that mostly arrives by pipeline from oil and gas fields in Los Angeles, around California, and out of state, though some of the oil and gas is even produced at the Ports. In the process of transforming crude oil into many petroleum products the refineries also release atmospheric pollution that drifts with winds – typically slightly onshore and from the southwest during the day and evening, though preliminary studies have identified important complexity in the air flow patterns. Nocturnal flows are offshore.
SISTER on TMOG at the Ports on a data collection survey.
BRI has conducted monthly trace gas mobile surveys of the Ports, nearby industrial areas, and downwind neighborhoods. Surveys will continue through the recovery period of Port activity (and air quality degradation). In situ data will be collected by SISTER (Standard Instrumentation Suite: TMOG Enabled for Response, TMOG Surveyor
– Truck MObile trace Gas surveyor). SISTER is a unique BRI asset that can measure 14 trace-gases, meteorology, aerosol profiles, and aerosol size-spectra while driving at up to highway speeds. SIS can be installed in TMOG, or on a boat, or a trailer, etc. Air quality surveys measure winds, methane (at high time-resolution), and other trace gases with health implications, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), for Port area sources to derive emissions. Then, emissions are modeled to derive downwind community exposure. BRI also collects sample canisters near sources and in downwind communities to create a fingerprint library to identify the source(s) of gases in the downwind communities. BRI surveys have enabled the team to identify key roads, major sources, and typical wind flow patterns.
BRI’s data can be used to inform health impact studies both by identifying downwind communities and reference communities, by profiling the pollution composition(s), and by fingerprinting the sources of pollution that is measured in downwind neighborhoods. This pollution profile identifies likely health impacts, which then can guide epidemiological studies and further detailed health studies.
The Ports are the largest pollution source in the Los Angeles Basin with traffic and related industrial activity for the Ports releasing a multitude of air pollutants (see graphic above), which have many health implications, supported by a wide body of literature. Please find below a summary of a few selected published health studies. BRI surveys have shown high particulate matter levels downwind of the Ports under normal operations as well as other trace gas pollutants.
Particulate matter adversely impacts cardiopulmonary health (Pope III & Dockery, 2006), (Franklin, Booke, & Pope III, 2015). A 2007 study showed that proximity to highways is directly associated with adverse pulmonary health outcomes due to exposure to particulate matter, NOX, CO, and others (Brugge, Durant, & Rioux, 2007). Both PM and NOX also can restrict lung volume (see de Jung and colleagues (2016)) and lead to wheeze, cough, and shortness of breath. Ambient PM exposure has been shown to incur significant adverse health effects (Shaughnessy, Venigalla, & Trump, 2015). SO2 and PM10 are both associated with cardiovascular and respiratory mortality, however, exposure to PM10 accounts for a higher proportion of mortalities (Khaniabadi et. al, 2017).
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released by refineries and traffic in general, although not typically by California traffic as sulfur is not allowed in California (on-road) fuels. Wu et. al (2020) found that increased SO2 pollution in Beijing correlated with a rise in mortality and morbidity. Exposure to SO2 is deleterious to cardiopulmonary health, contributing to conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cerebrovascular disease, and respiratory disease, along with asthma and bronchitis (Wu et. al, 2020). Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an industrial byproduct that also is emitted from dairies and sewage systems. H2Saffects cardio-pulmonary (lung) health and causes neurological deficiencies (Kilburn & Warshaw, 1995).
Emissions from refineries in the Port area also release emissions rich in hydrocarbons like polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs have been implicated in increased mortality from malignant tumors as well as nervous system, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular diseases (Li et. al 2016). Traffic, refineries, and other industrial activities release volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which negatively impact lung function and can increase risk of asthma and even leukemia, especially in children (Cakmak et. al 2014).
Oil wells near the Ports captured by BRI’s CEO Ira Leifer on a data collection trip.
Ozone (O3) is another common pollutant formed as a result of emissions from refineries, other industries, and traffic. Hůnová et. al (2012) found an increased rate of hospitalization and mortality for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases during a time period of high ambient ozone levels. Long term exposure (such as that of residents of polluted communities) to O3 in combination with PM worsens an individual’s health post-heart attack. Specifically, PM was associated with an increased risk of mortality (Malik et. al, 2019).
Children are particularly at risk. In general, poor air quality (like that of the Ports) can severely impact children. For example, Berhane and colleagues (2016) found a relationship between worsening air quality and the occurrence of bronchitis symptoms. Another study by Gauderman et. al (2015) observed an improvement in lung-function development as levels of PM and NOX decreased. Asthma risk also increases for communities that are near pollution sources, such as highways and major traffic thoroughfares (McConnell et. al, 2006).
The unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic has presented a time-critical opportunity to understand the relationship between trace gas pollution exposure. Thus, BRI proposes a time-critical study to understand this relationship and to inform future health studies arising from the massive (positive) air quality changes at the Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles. BRI is continuing its efforts to monitor air quality in the Port area, in support of future health studies.
Links to selected health impact studies:
Berhane et. al 2016 – “Association of Changes in Air Quality with Bronchitic Symptoms in Children in California, 1993–2012” – references Long Beach
Gauderman et. al 2015 – “Association of Improved Air Quality with Lung Development in Children” – references Long Beach
McConnell et. al 2006 – “Traffic, Susceptibility, and Childhood Asthma”
de Jung et. al 2016 – “Air pollution exposure is associated with restrictive ventilatory patterns”
Pope III & Dockery 2006 – “Health Effects of Fine Particulate Air Pollution: Lines that Connect”
Hůnová et. al 2012 – “Association between ambient ozone and health outcomes in Prague”
Franklin, Brook, & Pope III 2015 – “Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease”
© 2021 Bubbleology Research International. All rights reserved.
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11/13/2020 [Record-Breaking Hurricane Season Results In Biggest Offshore Oil Output Decline In Decade]
8/8/2020 [The Dallas Morning News: “Drilling drops to 15-year low in Permian Basin and other U.S. oil patches” ]
8/6/2020 [Oil Price.com: “US shale remains in survival mode for another year”]
8/2/2020 [Oil and Gas 360: “Bankruptcy filings by US enerygyproducers at 4-year high”]
7/8/2020 [Zero Hedge: “WTI slides after big crude inventory build”]
7/3/2020 [Caixing Global: “China is about to run out of places to store crude oil”]
4/7/2020 [CNBC: “Oil drops 9% as oversupply concerns outweigh hopes for a global production cut”]
4/3/2020 [Marketplace: “Why are oil prices so low?”]
4/1/2020 [USA Today: “Oil industry near collapse”]
3/20/2020 [NPR: “Barreling toward an epic glut of oil”]
3/16/2020 [SP Global: “Covid-19 price war could lead to extreme oil supply surplus”]
]]>Oil is toxic to birds (and many other species), harming impacted birds in a multitude of different manners. Even a small amount of oil can destroy insulation created by their feathers. This can result in hypothermia and sometimes deficits in mobility that leave the birds susceptible to predation. Long-term damage also occurs from exposure to the toxic hydrocarbon components in oil. These bird oiling events can be devastating to bird populations and have ripple effects that influence the surrounding ecosystem.
Wherever possible, oiled live birds are rescued for rehabilitation. Birds that have a good medical outlook upon assessment are taken care of until stable. The birds are then washed clean of oil and put in pools of water outside to groom and feed until they’re ready to be returned to their habitat. Sadly, most rescued birds do not survive the rehabilitation process, with large differences between species.
Western grebe in rehabilitation being cleaned of oil at the International Bird rescue center in San Pedro, CA.
Oiled birds are reported regularly along the coast from below Los Angeles to San Luis Obispo County in central California, often during the winter and spring months. Every year, around 200 birds are critically oiled. The most commonly oiled are water-dwelling birds which can have exposure at sea and when feeding and on beaches and in shoreline wetlands, which offer important habitat. Examples include grebes, pelicans, and ducks – among others.
The most famous mystery bird oiling event was the Luckenbach incident which occurred off San Francisco Bay. Oiled birds increasingly began turning up on the shore during winter months over a period of several years. The oil found on different birds was analyzed and discovered to have come from the same source. This source was identified in 2002 to be related to a 1953 shipwreck of a large freighter – the S.S. Jacob Luckenbach. This ship sank carrying half a million gallons of fuel which had been leaking out and oiling birds during large winter swells. Leakage from the S.S. Jacob Luckenbach killed or injured over 51,000 birds, mostly common murres but including many other species of birds and aquatic animals like sea otters. The U.S. Coast Guard employed a clean up effort where they were able to extract a majority of the oil left on the ship, thus reducing the threat to wildlife.
The largest U.S. “mystery” bird oiling in recent years was the Ventura Oiled Bird Incident (VOBI), which occurred after massive storms in January 2005, and is discussed in detail in a recent report.
Initially, oiled birds were observed along the Ventura coastline, eventually expanding with birds discovered across 250 miles of the California coastline. Rescue organizations recovered over 1,200 live oiled birds who were affected by this incident – thousands of birds were recovered dead.
The most impacted species was the western grebe, although there were many other affected species such as gulls and pelicans. Western grebes are in the water most of the time, resting on the surface or diving beneath to hunt. The range of species of birds found already dead was a bit more varied – with brown pelicans coming in second most abundant. Water-dwelling birds are at the highest risk for oiling events – which mostly occur on the surface of the ocean.
1,200 birds were rescued and brought in for rehabilitation to a facility in San Pedro, CA [International Bird Rescue: Blog post on VOBI]. Despite intensive efforts by rescue and rehabilitation workers, 80% of the rescued western grebes died in captivity or were euthanized. The most successful rehabilitation was of the brown pelicans. Rehabilitation of oiled birds is difficult and rarely results in widespread success. This response was considered to be relatively successful.
An oiled western grebe, one of the main birds impacted by the Ventura Oiled Bird Incident. Courtesy of International Bird Rescue.
Based on population estimates, a study suggested the VOBI affected up to 5% of the west coast population of western grebes with a greater impact on the breeding population – up to 25% of California’s western grebe breeding population – according to a different study (Paul Kelly, Pers. comm., 1/18/2005). Birds play an important role in the ecosystem and thus bird oilings affect the larger ecosystem. Moreover, although oiled birds are the most evident (they swim or fly to shore and wetland where they feel safer, and are found and often swim on the sea surface where oil slicks float) the oil that is affecting the birds also affects fish and zooplankton, both at the surface and when the oil sinks. However, other affected marine animals generally sink unnoticed to the seabed. Thus, birds are a bellwether for larger ecosystem impacts.
Mystery bird oiling events can be significant – the VOBI recovery efforts ended up costing more than a million dollars!
At the time of the VOBI, one oil slick was observed near the affected area, which is unexpected in relation to the magnitude of the bird oiling. Research done by Ken Wilson & Ira Leifer (BRI’s CEO) discovered that a significant source for VOBI oil was the Santa Paula Creek riverine seeps that then flowed into the Santa Clara River. VOBI occurred after a massive storm hit southern California in January 2005. This storm was powerful – resulting in a total 21 inches of rain over 4 days. The resulting flood flow in the Santa Paula Creek was the largest of such events recorded since 1933.
Evidence in the Santa Paula Creek suggested that the rise of riverine flows led to river catchments overflowing, releasing oil downstream to the ocean. Specifically, catchments filled with water and once they overflowed, oil would enter the turbulent stream flow, becoming suspended in the water column, and as surface slicks, transporting downstream. A few days after the storm, a cluster of oiled birds were found at the mouth of the Santa Clara River into the Pacific.
Santa Clara River mouth opening up into the ocean by Ventura, CA.
Scientists discovered the riverine source of the oil by observing the Santa Clara River upstream of the incident. Traces of oil were found along the river’s path, distributed on tree leaves (meters above the ground!) and clumped in large oil patties stuck to rocks. This suggests a huge volume of water carried oil downstream, leaving traces along the way. Another way in which scientists can identify the source oil is fingerprinting. This process matches chemical compounds in the oil to a library of source oils to try and find a match (i.e. various production oils globally as shipping and shipped oil are common sources of oil spills). Scientists fingerprinted oil found on birds and discovered that it did not match any nearby marine sources (like the COP oil field). Some samples from Santa Paula Creek were found to partially match the oil found on birds (one “conclusive” match and two “similar” matches). The chemistry, location of the oiled birds, and presence of catchment features in the creekbed with oil led to the conclusion that a source in the Santa Paula Creek, probably natural seepage, caused VOBI.
California laurel tree showing oil staining up to several meters above ground.
Hampering the effort to identify the source as from the Santa Paula Creek is the near absence of studies on riverine seepage or assessments of such seepage in coastal California rivers and streams. Filling this knowledge gap would be very important to improving response to similar future events, including identifying where catchment structure modifications could reduce the possibility of future events.
© 2021 Bubbleology Research International. All rights reserved.
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Oil and gas production in Kern County, CA.
A combination of oil oversupply and storage shortage may create a glimpse of legacy emissions for the oil and gas industry in a post-fossil fuel world
-Charlotte Marston, Ira Leifer
As the COVID-19 crisis blossomed, stay-at-home orders were issued across the country causing a near halt of economic activity – unemployment levels last seen during the Great Depression – destroying petroleum demand. And the COVID-19 crisis occurred during a period of extreme stress in the oil markets with a price/production war between Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the US, eventually leading to a global glut in oil storage. Logistical problems in Cushing, caused the spot price of Wyoming oil to temporarily fall negative! Even after well-publicized production cuts by these three producing countries, current supply outmatches demand by ~20 million barrels per day [Washington Post: “Oil doesn’t mean much when no one is going anywhere”], leaving the industry with around a billion barrels of excess oil. As the first CoVid wave resumes spreading like a blight across the US, slowly reclosing the economy, strong recovery in economic activity and hence oil demand is appearing less and less certain – driving terrific economic turmoil in the oil and gas industry. This economic wreckage is destroying local economies dependent on the industry while leaving state coffers emptier.
Eventually, COVID-19 will be in the rear view mirror, the economy will recover, and demand will increase along with the production to meet these needs. For now, though, the shutdown of less economic wells and even entire oil fields has decreased emissions – in common with emissions reductions from most other industries and also traffic. These have contributed to a noted pandemic side-effect – a welcome improvement in air pollution.
The trifecta of CoVid, economic downturn, and storage glut creates a massive problem for the industry as storage rises towards max capacity. Even before reaching max capacity, bottlenecks will temporarily block transport, leading to widespread oil well shut-ins (first higher cost wells) and even whole fields as producers declare bankruptcy. [Fortune: “Oil sector running out of storage for its unprecedented surplus”] Many reservoirs may be damaged due to the shut-in, leading to a preference for production even at a loss. In fact, some companies may end up paying buyers to take oil off of their hands – if they have storage. In April, prices of oil dropped into negative dollar territory! [The Guardian: “Oil prices sink to 20 year low”]
The current crisis, though, provides a unique opportunity to glimpse the future. For reasons ranging from fighting climate change to economics to lowering renewable energy prices, the world eventually will shift from fossil fuel energy (though some production will continue as feedstock to plastics, fertilizers, and other chemical industries). Yet, methane and other trace gas emissions will not completely cease with the transition – the legacy – despite the drastic decrease in production. BRI and NASA are using the current emissions reduction as a window onto this legacy, providing a guide for decision makers, resource planners, industry, and society to plan appropriately.
Legacy emissions continue because for many wells, particularly in tectonically active areas like California, earthquake motions and stresses prevent permanent and complete abandonment. And proper abandonment is not necessarily assured under some economic scenarios where many oil and gas producers are no longer economically viable.
Emissions from natural seepage and Oil & Gas production activities come from the same hydrocarbon reservoir – La Brea Tar Pits circa 1910 shows an example.
These legacy emissions include both migration that flows along the well pipes and casings, and also through permeable fractures and faults that intersect the well. “Legacy” emissions also occur along natural migration pathways, a process termed seepage. Although seepage is natural not anthropogenic, seepage and production often are co-located. In fact, seepage has long been used by prospectors to find oil. As production takes advantage of these petroleum reservoirs, seepage decreases (“migrating” through well pipes). Thus, emissions from oil and gas production and from the natural seepage that predated production on the site are mixed – in other words natural seepage is misallocated as industrial emissions in field assessments.
“The connectivity between seepage and production leads to the hypothesis that production decreases will lead to an increases in seepage.”
Discriminating between these generally co-located emissions can be extremely challenging, particularly as seep emissions and production fugitive emissions arise from the same reservoir with nearly the same composition. The only difference is whether the gases escape through fractures in rock or through well pipes.
SISTER at the Port of Los Angeles.
In the new BRI study, we will assess these emissions to test the hypothesis that production and seepage are inversely related. We will conduct repeat mobile air quality surveys using a unique BRI asset – SISTER (Standard Instrumentation Suite – Truck Enabled for Response) in a 4WD pickup truck – TMOG (Truck MObile trace Gas) Surveyor. SISTER measures 14 trace gases and high quality meteorology at up to highway speeds, mostly at sub part per billion accuracy.
BRI has developed and demonstrated a number of novel approaches to assessing emissions and locating sources from oil and gas production and for other sources (see additional reading below). These methods will be applied to derive emissions and source locations of methane and other trace gas emissions while oil and gas production remain shut-in to compare with surveys during the recovery period when oil and gas production resumes. This comparison will be used to detangle natural seepage from fugitive emissions.
The BRI team is excited to get a glimpse into this aspect of the future, providing society with guideposts in the present.
Additional News Readings:
8/8/2020 [The Dallas Morning News: “Drilling drops to 15-year low in Permian Basin and other U.S. oil patches” ]
8/6/2020 [Oil Price.com: “US shale remains in survival mode for another year”]
8/2/2020 [Oil and Gas 360: “Bankruptcy filings by US enerygyproducers at 4-year high”]
7/8/2020 [Zero Hedge: “WTI slides after big crude inventory build”]
7/3/2020 [Caixing Global: “China is about to run out of places to store crude oil”]
4/7/2020 [CNBC: “Oil drops 9% as oversupply concerns outweigh hopes for a global production cut”]
4/3/2020 [Marketplace: “Why are oil prices so low?”]
4/1/2020 [USA Today: “Oil industry near collapse”]
3/20/2020 [NPR: “Barreling toward an epic glut of oil”]
3/16/2020 [SP Global: “Covid-19 price war could lead to extreme oil supply surplus”]
Further Technical Readings on BRI’s Platforms and Analysis Tools:
Leifer, I., Melton, C., Manish, G., & Leen, B. (2014). Mobile monitoring of methane leakage. Gases and Instrumentation, Gases and Instrumentation International, Wellesley Hills, MA, USA.
Leifer, I., Melton, C., Frash, J., Fischer, M. L., Cui, X., Murray, J. J., & Green, D. S. (2016). Fusion of mobile in situ and satellite remote sensing observations of chemical release emissions to improve disaster response. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 4, 59.
Leifer, I., Melton, C., Tratt, D. M., Buckland, K. N., Clarisse, L., Coheur, P., … & Van Damme, M. (2017). Remote sensing and in situ measurements of methane and ammonia emissions from a megacity dairy complex: Chino, CA. Environmental pollution, 221, 37-51.
Leifer, I., Melton, C., Tratt, D. M., Buckland, K. N., Chang, C. S., Frash, J., … & Lundquist, T. (2018). Validation of mobile in situ measurements of dairy husbandry emissions by fusion of airborne/surface remote sensing with seasonal context from the Chino Dairy Complex. Environmental pollution, 242, 2111-2134.
Leifer, I., Melton, C., Fischer, M. L., Fladeland, M., Frash, J., Gore, W., … & Yates, E. L. (2018). Atmospheric characterization through fused mobile airborne and surface in situ surveys: methane emissions quantification from a producing oil field. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 11(3), 1689.
© 2021 Bubbleology Research International. All rights reserved.
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TMOG equipped with SISTER in front of shipping containers at The Port of Long Beach.
The BRI team loaded SISTER into TMOG and drove to the Port of Long Beach last Wednesday (May 6, 2020). A year ago, BRI surveyed the same roads and area, downwind of these very busy ports and saw surprisingly high levels of air pollutants like ozone and nitrogen oxides – the highest BRI had ever measured.
The port was quiet in a way never before observed – only one of the large gantry cranes were moving, and there were very few trucks on the 710 port highway and other roads – normally there are lines of trucks extending for miles! Real time data clearly showed the air was much cleaner, with nitrogen oxides decreased as much as 90%.
Aerial shot of the port with a map inlay showing the location of the port relative to the larger Los Angeles area.
In our Rapid Response surveys, turnaround is very important. Mobilizing SISTER only takes an hour or so, allowing the BRI team to accomplish air surveys within a work day for many relevant locations in central and southern California. Real time data visualization allows the team to collect sample canisters at targeted locations for later laboratory analysis at the University of California, Irvine, Blake laboratory. Real time data visualization also allows collection of repeat data for more important areas.
For detailed analysis, post processing applies calibrations, layback times (the delay for the sample to be drawn down ~20 ft of tubing), regrids to a uniform timebase, and generates Google Earth visualizations and other plots at near publication quality. To meet rapid response needs, post processing is automated once files are uploaded to a server. During this survey, post processing was mostly finished while TMOG was returning to the BRI office. For example, the maps and plots below were ready late the same evening as the port survey.
TMOG with SISTER with the Port of Long Beach in the background.
The survey documented the significant improvement in air quality compared to the year prior. Specifically, NOX (nitrogen oxides) levels for the Port of Long Beach were ~30 ppb whereas the year prior they were as high as 300 ppb. Nitric oxide was the dominant component of NOX, indicating the freshness (i.e., locality) of the pollution. The primary source of NOX is cars and trucks and cranes and other industrial activity. NOX reacts with volatile hydrocarbons (like those in gasoline and other fossil fuels) to form ozone which can cause lung damage nearby these sources and far away as winds transport these gases. Ozone was significantly lower than the year prior, yet was still above 50 ppb – surprisingly high given present stay at home orders. (The main sources of ozone include transport and industrial emissions.) Ozone levels also were elevated for data collected at near the end of the Navy Pier, under a strong onshore flow. Meanwhile clear plume signatures were observed downwind of refineries.
BRI plans additional surveys over the next few weeks to map the changes in air quality as industries and activities resume (and potentially come to a halt once more later on). These critical data will provide important and unique insights into the relationship between industrial and commercial activities and air pollution.
* SISTER- Standard Instrumentation Suite: TMOG** Enabled for Response
**TMOG Surveyor – Truck Mobile trace Gas Surveyor
+ BRI is an essential services company that works on natural gas pipeline leak detection.
© 2021 Bubbleology Research International. All rights reserved.
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Dead Duckling Oil Pool in the Santa Paula Creek riverbed with thick black oil floating on water. Photo courtesy Ken Wilson, CDFG.
Terrestrial (onshore) oil seepage occurs globally in petroleum basins. When this seepage is in rivers or creeks or nearby, oil seepage can travel downstream. Riverine oil seepage includes seeps located in or near non-marine bodies of water such as rivers, creeks and lakes. Ultimately, riverine seepage can transfer seep oil downstream to the ocean. Transport to the ocean is particularly efficient if the travel distance to the ocean is short. Longer journeys can be obstructed as oil deposits onto vegetation and/or is buried in the sediment. For example, seepage in the Amazon River mouth is certain to reach the ocean, whereas oil seepage in the San Joaquin Valley, Central California, that reaches nearby streams is far more likely to deposit in the riverbed/streambed rather than reach the distant ocean.
When oil seeps from underground reservoirs whether on land or sea, there can be significant ecological impacts. Oil is toxic to many organisms (and humans) who may come into contact with it. Thus, oil exposure to an ecological community can induce a rapid shift in species composition. Species that better tolerate the petroleum hydrocarbons will thrive while others struggle to survive. These adaptation pressures exert long-term composition effects on riverine and other ecosystems. When riverine seepage reaches the ocean, it can have long-term, drastic ecological effects on marine life, and thus should be considered when assessing the overall impact of seeps on the marine environment.
Map of the Santa Clara river system (containing the Santa Paula Creek), the largest in Southern California.
One studied example of riverine seepage occurs in the Santa Paula Creek. Here, the same hydrocarbon reservoirs that feed the Coal Oil Point seep field also underlie and feed riverine seepage in the Santa Paula Creek, a tributary of the Santa Clara River. Here, tar was found on vegetation and oil was seen accumulating in pools. Riverine seeps are subject to some of the same processes described for marine seeps, although there are other important factors. Specifically, if the tar is outside the river bed, it must flow to the water. This flow is faster and further in summer when it is hot. By contrast, as winter sets in, cold weather hardens the tar and it is unlikely to reach the river or creek. Additionally, tar and oil in riverbeds can be eroded and released into the flow, which then transports it downstream.
Oil in river systems can collect in pools called catchments. Catchments can be natural (formed from fallen vegetation and rocks) or manmade. These can either prevent downstream transport of oil or allow oil to float on the surface of these pools which, in fact, increases the probability that this oil will reach the ocean.
Photomosaic of the northern stream bank of the Santa Paula Creek in 2007-2008.
Seepage is found all along the Santa Paula Creek. Out of these many seeps, the Culvert Seep Area (CSA), Grass Clump and Hole Seeps (informally named) are thought to contribute to a hefty pool of oil collection (or a large catchment): the Thomas Aquinas Oil Pool, named for its proximity to Thomas Aquinas College. By one estimate, this pool could have contained around 10,000 liters of free oil held in its river bank. Downstream, many other seeps litter the creek leaking oil and gas from underground reservoirs.
Another oil pool, named the Dead-Duckling Oil Pool (DDOP) also had thick oil floating on its surface and lies downstream of the Culvert Seep. Over time, water flow had rearranged the streambed allowing some oil to pool in a secondary channel that was isolated by receding water levels. The oil supplied directly to this pool comes from the Cactus Slump Seep Area. These seeps were found to be the most active in the Santa Paula Creek area. They include West Sowby-Cactus Slump, and Headland seeps. The DDOP appeared to be growing rapidly when surveyed in 2008 – found to be around 1500 liters. As such, this accumulation posed a threat to wildlife as an oil pool overflow would spill over into the surrounding ecosystems. The Dead-Duckling moniker was even given in memory of five dead oiled ducklings.
Rivers dumped sediment and oil into the oceans during a large storm in January 2005. Santa Clara River labeled.
The pools in all seeps – like the ones just discussed along the Santa Paula Creek – can overflow and be released to flow downstream when river levels rise. Higher fluvial flow – when sediment is in more rapid motion – allows oil to bypass areas it would usually pool in and be sedimented (buried) or adhered to vegetation. Higher river flow also reduces the likelihood that oil catches on vegetation while also uncovering oil-bearing sediments releasing this oil into the stream. Large storms cause freshwater stormflows as river catchments overflow and high volumes of water rush downstream. With these stormflows comes sediment, vegetation, debris, and if a terrestrial seep is nearby – oil. The large pulse of water from a storm is more likely to reach the ocean than the otherwise constant trickle of water and oil.
Currently, virtually no attention has been focused on riverine seepage. This gaping hole in our knowledge of these seep systems prevents us from understanding the impacts these systems have on ecosystems. Characterizing and studying riverine seeps as is done for many marine (and some terrestrial) will expand our understanding and potentially mitigate unnecessary risk to local ecosystems.
© 2021 Bubbleology Research International. All rights reserved.
]]>Finding and studying marine seeps is made easier thanks to the bubbles they release compared to the invisible gas emissions that diffuse through soil and the overlying vegetation canopy. These bubbles can be observed by sonar systems even in deep waters. Detection of seeps on dry land is not so simple. Many seep gases are odorless and colorless. More information on seep gases can be found in the Seep Air Quality article. Thus, most terrestrial seeps go completely unnoticed despite the potential of a horrible risk. In 1985, trapped methane from a terrestrial seep ignited in the basement of a clothing store in Los Angeles, causing a destructive and deadly explosion.
Aftermath of the Ross Store explosion in Los Angeles – courtesy of LA Public Library.
Seep geology describes the structural setting and controls of the rock layers ranging from the reservoir formation layer(s) to the Earth’s surface. The bedrock or foundation to understand seep geology, is Geology Rules!
Firstly, there can’t be seepage unless there is a reservoir formation with hydrocarbons (oil and gas) that were exposed to high pressure and temperature over geological times – many millions of years. There also needs to be a trap, such as an anticline (a crest of the formation) or structures associated with faults that allows the accumulation of buoyant hydrocarbons. No accumulation means there is nothing to seep. Furthermore, the reservoir formation must be permeable to allow migration of isolated pockets of oil and gas into the trap. The trap needs a capping layer – otherwise the migrating oil and gas would have escaped to the ocean and atmosphere in prior geological ages, leaving nothing behind to seep. Finally, there must be pathways through the solid rock overlaying the reservoir – the capping layers – or there will be no migration of seep hydrocarbons to the surface. The character of the seepage then depends on the geology of these migration pathways as well as what types of oil and gas are in the reservoir.
As with everywhere, the Coal Oil Point (COP) seep field, located offshore of Santa Barbara, CA, is subject to Geology Rules! – simple geologic rules (or guidelines). The COP seep field is the most active seep area in California in terms of hydrocarbon gases. The COP seep field is the second most prolific seepage with respect to oil emissions (first place goes to seeps further north near Point Concepcion).
But Geology Rules! raises many questions. Where do the oil and gases released from the COP seep field come from? Why is the field in shallow water? And why is it near Santa Barbara? Why is seepage focused at certain points?
The answer to these questions lies in the geology – the rock formations and geologic structures that govern the characteristics of these famous seeps.
The COP seep field’s source formation (where seep hydrocarbons come from) is the Monterey Formation, which also is the source formation for much of California’s seepage and oil production. The source formation contains hydrocarbons primarily from the decomposed bodies of ancient marine organisms. This sedimentary rock formation is from the Miocene Era, dating from 5 to 23 million years ago. There were already many of the animals we see today like bears, crows, and fish, but fewer ocean invertebrates than earlier eras. 19 million years ago, a rift valley opened in what we now know as the Santa Barbara Channel. During the next 12 million years uncountable plankton and zooplankton fell to the seabed and were ultimately buried. These hydrocarbons were compressed and “cooked into kerogen” by millions of years of high pressure and temperature from the weight of the rock (sometimes referred to as dinosaur goo). This kerogen still forms today under the channel, with the oil and gas migrating upwards along the formation rock which tilts upwards towards the Santa Ynez coastal Mountains.
Importantly, the Monterey Formation is highly fractured, allowing for hydrocarbon migration across bedding planes into the traps. These traps are formed by faults. Even where no suitable fracture exists, the oil only has to wait until an earthquake creates one, perhaps years or millions of years, but oil is patient.
An outcrop of the Monterey Formation seen in Gaviota State Park north of Santa Barbara. The rock in the middle is darker due to high levels of oil and tar.
The Monterey Formation is shallower offshore Santa Barbara in both the Concepcion and COP seep fields than elsewhere along the northern Santa Barbara Channel coast. Thus, oil and gas migrate in the Monterey Formation along the coast to the shallow locations of these two prolific fields. This can be seen in the figure below where the Monterey formation (in blue) rises to the seabed (outcropping) in the vicinity of the seeps.
A north-south transect of the northern Santa Barbara Channel from Point Conception to Ventura. This shows what would be seen if we cut straight down into the earth and pulled it out like a slice of cake.
The primary Monterey Formation trap that feeds the seeps with oil and gas lies about 1 km (0.6 miles) under the seabed. The trap is capped by the Pliocene-age formation – the Sisquoc Formation. This more recent rock dates from 2.5 to 5 million years ago. The Sisquoc cap seals in (mostly) the reservoir formation, allowing hydrocarbons migrating upwards from deeper under the channel to accumulate in the Ellwood Anticline.
The seep field lies in shallow waters due to the same geological process (faults and other tectonic motions) that created the Santa Ynez coastal Mountain range and the deep Santa Barbara Channel. Seeps are prolific in water from ~80 m (240 ft) to the intertidal swash zone near the Coal Oil Point, where Monterey Formation rocks protrude from the beach at low tide.
A view of the beach and Santa Ynez Mountain range in Santa Barbara, CA – a beautiful product of geology!
The specific location of a seep is determined by the seabed geology and whether it’s conducive to the leakage of reservoir hydrocarbons. Seepage enters the ocean/air via fractures or cracks in the capping layer. These migration pathways funnel the hydrocarbons out of the underlying reservoir.
Tectonic stresses on rock layers cause faults and fractures that serve as migration pathways. The formation. In the COP seep field, the hydrocarbon trap is an anticline formed by folding of the Monterey Formation. This folding is non-compressional and creates a fault system and damage zone that penetrates the capping Sisquoc Formation, providing migration pathways to the seabed. Where the anticline and fault system are crossed by other faults, chimneys of fragmented rocks are formed that provide multiple migration pathways and intense seepage. Thus, if one pathway becomes sealed with tar, there are plenty of other seepage pathways for migration to the seabed or open air. Other faults are associated with compressional stresses – where the Earth’s crust is pushed together – that squeeze closed potential migration pathways. Migration does not occur through these faults and fractures.
Migration of wildebeests like oil travel accessible paths.
Geology Rules! must be followed perfectly to form a seep. COP seep field has hydrocarbons from its source-rock (the Monterey Formation), it has many migration pathways via fractures and faults, and it’s capped by the Sisquoc Formation.
]]>BRI has developed technologies for detecting, characterizing, and assessing emissions from a range of important sources including: natural gas pipeline leaks, natural hydrocarbon seeps, fossil fuel industrial activities including production and refining sources, husbandry, and other sources. Finding and fixing natural gas pipeline leaks is critically important as they can pose safety (due to flammability) and health hazards and damage the environment by contributing to climate change and air pollution. Many of these assessment techniques were pioneered at natural seeps, which also have served as a natural field testbed for further technique development.
Although most work in support of the energy sector has been through a unique BRI asset, AMOG Surveyor; however, recently, BRI has developed a second asset, SIS – the Standard Instrumentation Suite, which is designed for multi-platform deployment. SIS includes all instruments and is designed to be sea spray proof for marine deployments. This also allows SIS to be deployed on TMOG, for off-road data collection.
The BRI Team will continue to collect and analyze SIS data using TMOG in support of energy sector needs in the coming weeks.
TMOG detects many trace gases, including methane – the most prominent component of natural gas.
Dr. Leifer, PhD., BRI CEO and chief scientist, has together a virus safety briefing for the COVid-19 pandemic that was presented to BRI employees and is shared below. Information therein is based on official reports and peer reviewed papers, NOT media reports. This resource is meant to be shared with friends, family, and the community.
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